abstract
array
center
description
displaymath
document
enumerate
eqnarray
equation
figure
flushleft
flushright
itemize
letter environment: writing letters
list
math
minipage
picture
quotation
quote
tabbing
table
tabular
thebibliography
theorem
titlepage
verbatim
verse
This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a document preparation system, version as of September 2009. It is intended to cover LaTeX2e, which has been the standard version of LaTeX for many years.
LaTeX is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program. LaTeX was originally created by Leslie Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available there. Again, the present document is unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers.
The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the LaTeX “macro package” for TeX. To be more specific, it processes an input file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least three files as output:
There are other less-common variants of LaTeX (and TeX) as well, which can produce HTML, XML, and other things.
A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a
\ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a
single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [],
are optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are
required.
LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless explicitly directed to do otherwise.
A minimal input file looks like the following:
\documentclass{class}
\begin{document}
your text
\end{document}
where the class is a valid document class for LaTeX. See Document classes, for details of the various document classes available locally.
You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentclass
and the \begin{document} commands (this area is called the
preamble).
The class of a given document is defined with the command:
\documentclass[options]{class}
The \documentclass command must be the first command in a
LaTeX source file.
Built-in LaTeX document class names are (many other document classes are available as add-ons; see Overview):
article report book letter slides
Standard options are described below.
You can specify so-called global options or class options
to the \documentclass command by enclosing them in square
brackets as usual. To specify more than one option, separate
them with a comma:
\documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class}
Here is the list of the standard class options.
All of the standard classes except slides accept the following
options for selecting the typeface size (default is 10pt):
10pt 11pt 12pt
All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper
size (default is letterpaper):
a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper
draft, finalfinal.
fleqnlandscapeleqnoopenbibtitlepage, notitlepageThese options are not available with the slides class:
onecolumntwocolumnonecolumn.
onesidetwosideoneside, except
for the book class.
The \evensidemargin (\oddsidemargin parameter determines
the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the
page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper
size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided
printing the text is centered, for two-sided, \oddsidemargin is
40% of the difference between \paperwidth and \textwidth
with \evensidemargin the remainder.
openrightopenanyopenright for book.
The slides class offers the option clock for printing
the time at the bottom of each note.
Additional packages are loaded like this:
\usepackage[options]{pkg}
To specify more than one pkg, you can separate them with a
comma, or use multiple \usepackage commands.
Any options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown
by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
\usepackage.
Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here.
The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.
These commands are used like \textit{italic text}. The
corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which
takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the
next type style command or the end of the current group.
The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either
\sffamily\bfseries or \bfseries\sffamily to get bold
sans serif.
You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for instance,
\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}.
\textrm (\rmfamily)\textit (\itshape)\emph\textit and \textrm).
\textmd (\mdseries)\textbf (\bfseries)\textup (\upshape)\textsl (\slshape)\textsf (\sffamily)\textsc (\scshape)\texttt (\ttfamily)\textnormal (\normalfont)\mathrm\mathbf\mathsf\mathtt\mathit(\mit)\mathnormal\mathcalIn addition, the command
\mathversion{bold}
can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in
formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default.
LaTeX also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to
the given style, that is, are not cumulative. They are used
differently than the above commands, too: {\cmd ...}
instead of \cmd{...}. These are two very different
things.
\bf\cal\em\it\rm\sc\sf\sl\ttThe following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the ‘10pt’, ‘11pt’, and ‘12pt’ document size options, respectively (see Document class options).
| Command | 10pt | 11pt | 12pt
|
|---|---|---|---|
\tiny
| 5 | 6 | 6
|
\scriptsize
| 7 | 8 | 8
|
\footnotesize
| 8 | 9 | 10
|
\small
| 9 | 10 | 10.95
|
\normalsize (default)
| 10 | 10.95 | 12
|
\large
| 12 | 12 | 14.4
|
\Large
| 14.4 | 14.4 | 17.28
|
\LARGE
| 17.28 | 17.28 | 20.74
|
\huge
| 20.74 | 20.74 | 24.88
|
\Huge
| 24.88 | 24.88 | 24.88
|
The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of
the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the
end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of
these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}.
These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones.
\fontencoding{enc}OT1 and T1.
\fontfamily{family}cmr for Computer Modern Roman
cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif
cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter
and numerous others.
\fontseries{series}m Medium (normal)
b Bold
c Condensed
bc Bold condensed
bx Bold extended
and various other combinations.
\fontshape{shape}n Upright (normal)
it Italic
sl Slanted (oblique)
sc Small caps
ui Upright italics
ol Outline
The two last shapes are not available for most font families.
\fontsize{size}{skip}\baselineskip. The unit of both parameters defaults to
pt. The default \baselineskip for the Computer Modern typeface
is 1.2 times the \fontsize.
The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the
\baselinestretch parameter when the type size changes; the
default is 1. However, the best way to “double space” a document,
if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the
setspace package; see
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace.
\selectfont\selectfont is called.
\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}\fontencoding, \fontfamily,
\fontseries and \fontshape with the given parameters,
followed by \selectfont.
Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page.
\onecolumn
The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output. This is the default.
\twocolumn\twocolumn[text1col]
The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output. If the optional text1col argument is present,
it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting
starts.
These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
\columnsep\columnseprule\columnwidth\textwidth in
single-column text.
These parameters control float behavior in two-column output:
\dbltopfraction\dblfloatpagefraction\dblfloatsep\dbltextfloatsep\flushbottom
The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same
height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the
page.
This is the default if twocolumn mode is selected
(see Document class options).
\raggedbottom
The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the natural
height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be
stretched.
\headheightbook class, where it varies with the
type size.
\headsepbook
class, where it varies with the type size.
\footskipbook
class, where it varies with the type size.
\linewidtharticle document in
‘10pt’, it's set to ‘345pt’; in two-column mode, that
becomes ‘229.5pt’.
\textheightarticle or
report document in ‘10pt’, it's set to
‘43\baselineskip’; for book, it's ‘41\baselineskip’.
For ‘11pt’, it's ‘38\baselineskip’ and for ‘12pt’,
‘36\baselineskip’.
\textwidtharticle or report document, it's
‘345pt’ at ‘10pt’, ‘360pt’ at ‘11pt’, and
‘390pt’ at ‘12pt’. For a book document, it's
‘4.5in’ at ‘10pt’, and ‘5in’ at ‘11pt’ or ‘12pt’.
\topmargin\paperheight − 2in −
\headheight − \headsep − \textheight − \footskip, and
then divided by two.
\topskipSectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:
\part\chapter\section\subsection\subsubsection\paragraph\subparagraphAll sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,
\chapter[toctitle]{title}
In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places:
You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other places.
Also, all sectioning commands have *-forms that print
title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an
entry in the table of contents. For instance:
\section*{Preamble}
The \appendix command changes the way following sectional units
are numbered. The \appendix command itself generates no text
and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this
command is something like
\chapter{A Chapter}
...
\appendix
\chapter{The First Appendix}
One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.”
\label \label{key}
A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to
key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing
inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key.
A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished.
To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes:
chsecfigtabeqThus, a label for a figure would look like fig:snark or
fig.snark.
\pageref{key} \pageref{key}
The \pageref{key} command produces the page number of
the place in the text where the corresponding
\label{key} command appears.
\ref{key} \ref{key}
The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding
\label command (see \label). It does not produce any text,
such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself.
LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner:
\begin{envname}
...
\end{envname}
abstract \begin{abstract}
...
\end{abstract}
Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.
array \begin{array}{template}
col1 text&col1 text&coln}\\
...
\end{array}
Math arrays are produced with the array environment, normally
within an equation environment (see equation). It has a
single mandatory template argument describing the number of
columns and the alignment within them. Each column col is
specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should
be formatted, as follows:
clrColumn entries are separated by &. Column entries may include
other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array is terminated with
\\.
In the template, the construct @{text} puts text
between columns in each row.
Here's an example:
\begin{equation}
\begin{array}{lrc}
left1 & right1 & centered1 \\
left2 & right2 & centered2 \\
\end{array}
\end{equation}
The \arraycolsep parameter defines half the width of the space
separating columns; the default is ‘5pt’. See tabular, for other
parameters which affect formatting in array environments,
namely \arrayrulewidth and \arraystretch.
The array environment can only be used in math mode.
center \begin{center}
line1 \\
line2 \\
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right
margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the
string \\.
\centering
The \centering declaration corresponds to the center
environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such
as quote or in a parbox. Thus, the text of a figure or
table can be centered on the page by putting a \centering
command at the beginning of the figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats
paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of
the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of
an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit.
Here's an example:
\begin{quote}
\centering
first line \\
second line \\
\end{quote}
description \begin{description}
\item [label1] item1
\item [label2] item2
...
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists. Each
label is typeset in bold, flush right. The item text may
contain multiple paragraphs.
Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if
you typeset a label in typewriter using \texttt, you'll get
bold typewriter: \item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]. This
may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use
\tt, which resets all other style variations: \item[{\tt
plain typewriter}].
For details about list spacing, see itemize.
displaymath \begin{displaymath}
math
\end{displaymath}
or
\[math\]
The displaymath environment (\[...\] is a synonym)
typesets the math text on its own line, centered by default.
The global fleqn option makes equations flush left; see
Document class options.
No equation number is added to displaymath text; to get an
equation number, use the equation environment (see equation).
document
The document environment encloses the body of a document.
It is required in every LaTeX document. See Starting & ending.
enumerate \begin{enumerate}
\item item1
\item item2
...
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as
itemize (see itemize) and description
(see description).
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
By default, the numbering at each level is done like this:
The enumerate environment uses the counters \enumi
through \enumiv counters (see Counters). If the optional
argument to \item is given, the counter is not incremented for
that item.
The enumerate environment uses the commands \labelenumi
through \labelenumiv to produce the default label. So, you can
use \renewcommand to change the labels (see \newcommand & \renewcommand). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase
letters:
\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}
eqnarray \begin{eqnarray} (or eqnarray*)
formula1 \\
formula2 \\
...
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\
and consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
\\* can also be used to separate equations, with its normal
meaning of not allowing a page break at that line.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
\nonumber command. Alternatively, The *-form of the
environment (\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}) will
omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as
eqnarray.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
equation \begin{equation}
math
\end{equation}
The equation environment starts a displaymath
environment (see displaymath), e.g., centering the math text
on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin.
figure \begin{figure[*]}[placement]
figbody
\label{label}
\caption[loftitle]{text}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are instead “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
When typesetting in double-columns, the starred form produces a full-width figure (across both columns).
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly
put a float:
tbb is not
allowed for full-width floats (figure*) with double-column
output. To ameliorate this, use the stfloats or
dblfloatfix package, but see the discussion at caveats in the
FAQ: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat.
ht is
automatically added. To absolutely force a figure to appear “here”,
use the float and use its H placement letter. (That
package also provides other options.)
pThe standard report and article classes use the default placement
tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. you wish.
The \caption command specifies caption text for the
figure. The caption is numbered by default. If loftitle is
present, it is used in the list of figures instead of text
(see Tables of contents).
\floatpagefraction\floatsep\intextsep\textfloatsep\textfraction\topfractionflushleft \begin{flushleft}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
right Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
\raggedright
The \raggedright declaration corresponds to the
flushleft environment. This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as quote or in a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end
command that ends the paragraph unit.
flushright \begin{flushright}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
left. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
\raggedleft
The \raggedleft declaration corresponds to the
flushright environment. This declaration can be used inside an
environment such as quote or in a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end
command that ends the paragraph unit.
itemize \begin{itemize}
\item item1
\item item2
...
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted”
list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four
levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making
environments, such as enumerate (see enumerate).
Each item of an itemize list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
By default, the marks at each level look like this:
The itemize environment uses the commands \labelitemi
through \labelitemiv to produce the default label. So, you can
use \renewcommand to change the labels. For instance, to have
the first level use diamonds:
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
The \leftmargini through \leftmarginvi parameters define
the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
the left margin of the list. By convention, \leftmargin is set
to the appropriate \leftmarginN when a new level of
nesting is entered.
The defaults vary from ‘.5em’ (highest levels of nesting) to ‘2.5em’ (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:
\setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
Some parameters that affect list formatting:
\itemindent\labelsep\labelwidth\listparindent\rightmarginquote,
quotation, and verse environments, where it is set equal
to \leftmargin.
Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default).
\itemsep2pt plus1pt
minus1pt for 10pt documents, 3pt plus2pt minus1pt for
11pt, and 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt for 12pt.
\parsep\itemsep.
\topsep8pt plus2pt minus4pt for
10pt documents, 9pt plus3pt minus5pt for 11pt,
and 10pt plus4pt minus6pt for 12pt. These are reduced
for nested lists.
\partopsep\topsep when the list environment starts a
paragraph. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt for 10pt
documents, 3pt plus1pt minus1pt for 11pt, and 3pt
plus2pt minus2pt for 12pt.
Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items. Here is an example defining an itemize*
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item (\parskip is not list-specific,
see \parskip):
\newenvironment{itemize*}%
{\begin{itemize}%
\setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
\setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
{\end{itemize}}
letter environment: writing lettersThis environment is used for creating letters. See Letters.
list
The list environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{labeling}{spacing}
\item item1
\item item2
...
\end{list}
The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be
labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to \item).
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the
label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.
The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the
spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be
empty, i.e., {}, which leaves the default spacing.
math \begin{math}
math
\end{math}
The math environment inserts the given math within the
running text. \(...\)) and $...$ are synonyms.
See Math formulas.
minipage \begin{minipage}[position][height][inner-pos]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment typesets its body text in a
block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the
\parbox command (see \parbox), but unlike \parbox,
other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage.
The arguments are the same as for \parbox (see \parbox).
By default, paragraphs are not indented in the minipage
environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as
\setlength{\parindent}{1pc} command.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A
\footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the \mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary
footnote counter (see Counters).
However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.
picture \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
... picture commands ...
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any
kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.
You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying
their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal
point and a minus sign—a number like 5, 0.3 or
-3.1416. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the
unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set
to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54
centimeters. You should only change the value of \unitlength,
using the \setlength command, outside of a picture
environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying
the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin,
which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that
when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces;
the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a
position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment
produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this
argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position
argument, following the size argument, that can change the
origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength
has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument.
The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it.
Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put
command. The command
\put (11.3,-.3){...}
puts the object specified by ... in the
picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3).
The reference points for various objects will be described below.
The \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything
that can go in an \mbox (see \mbox) in the text argument of
the \put command. When you do this, the reference point will
be the lower left corner of the box.
The picture commands are described in the following sections.
\circle \circle[*]{diameter}
The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close
to the specified one as possible. The *-form of the command
draws a solid circle.
Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.
\makebox
\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}
The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to
the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a
width and height in multiples of \unitlength.
The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that
your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following:
tblrSee \makebox.
\framebox \framebox(width,height)[pos]{...}
The \framebox command is like \makebox (see previous
section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box
that it creates.
The \framebox command produces a rule of thickness
\fboxrule, and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule
and the contents of the box.
\dashboxDraws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis:
\dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text}
\dashbox creates a dashed rectangle around text in a
picture environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the
rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight.
The text is positioned at optional pos.
A dashed box looks best when the rwidth and rheight are
multiples of the dlen.
\frame \frame{text}
The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around text.
The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra
space is put between the frame and the object.
\line \line(xslope,yslope){length}
The \line command draws a line with the given length and
slope xslope/yslope.
Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y,
where x and y have integer values from −6
through 6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes,
see the curve2e and many many other packages on CTAN.
\linethickness
The \linethickness{dim} command declares the thickness
of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be
dim, which must be a positive length.
\linethickness does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval.
\thicklines
The \thicklines command is an alternate line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf. \linethickness and \thinlines.
\thinlines
The \thinlines command is the default line thickness for
horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment;
cf. \linethickness and \thicklines.
\multiput \multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj}
The \multiput command copies the object obj in a regular
pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position
(x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on,
n times.
\oval\oval(width,height)[portion]
The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.
The optional argument portion allows you to select part of the
oval via the following:
tbrlThe “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes with rounded corners.
\putThe \put command places the item specified by the mandatory
argument at the given coordinates.
\shortstack \shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...}
The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid
positions are:
rlcObjects are separated with \\.
\vector \vector(x-slope,y-slope){length}
The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
length and slope. The x and y values must lie between
−4 and +4, inclusive.
quotation \begin{quotation}
text
\end{quotation}
The margins of the quotation environment are indented on both
the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins.
Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
Unlike the quote environment, each paragraph is indented
normally.
quote \begin{quote}
text
\end{quote}
The margins of the quote environment are indented on both the
left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a
blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
Unlike the quotation environment, paragraphs are not indented.
tabbing \begin{tabbing}
row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\
row2col1 \> \> row2col3 \\
...
\end{tabbing}
The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in
columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as
was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where
the width of each column is constant and known in advance.
This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular
environment.
The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment:
\\ tabbing\= (tabbing)\> (tabbing)\<\+\-\' (tabbing)\>,
\<, \', \\, or \kill command, to the right
of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop.
\` (tabbing)\` command moves all the
text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing}
command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing
environment. There must be no \> or \' command between
the \` and the command that ends the line.
\a (tabbing)tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and
\` do not produce accents as usual (see Accents). Instead,
the commands \a=, \a' and \a` are used.
\kill\\
except that it throws away the current line instead of producing
output for it. The effect of any \=, \+ or \-
commands in that line remain in effect.
\poptabs\pushtabs.
\pushtabstabbing environment.
\tabbingsep\'.
This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:
\begin{tabbing}
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
\> begin \= \+ \\
\> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
else \+ \\
fact := 1; \-\- \\
end;\\
\end{tabbing}
table \begin{table}[placement]
body of the table
\caption{table title}
\end{table}
Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try
to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put
a float; these are the same as that used with the figure
environment, and described there (see figure).
The standard report and article classes use the default
placement [tbp].
The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc.,
you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your table.
tabular \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
...
\end{tabular}
or
\begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
...
\end{tabular*}
These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items, aligned vertically in columns.
\\ must be used to specify the end of each row of the table,
except for the last, where it is optional—unless an \hline
command (to put a rule below the table) follows.
The mandatory and optional arguments consist of:
widthtabular* environment. There must be
rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified
width.
postbcolslr|@{text}\extracolsep{wd} command in an @-expression causes
an extra space of width wd to appear to the left of all
subsequent columns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep
command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not
suppressed by an @-expression. An \extracolsep command can be
used only in an @-expression in the cols argument.
p{wd}\parbox[t]{wd} command. However, a \\ may not
appear in the item, except in the following situations:
minipage, array, or tabular.
\parbox.
\centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft
declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an
environment when used in a p-column element.
*{num}{cols}*-expression.
Parameters that control formatting:
\arrayrulewidth|, \hline, and
\vline in the tabular and array environments; the
default is ‘.4pt’.
\arraystretchtabular and array
environments; default is ‘1’, for no scaling.
\doublerulesep||
in the tabular and array environments; default is ‘2pt’.
\tabcolsepThese commands can be used inside a tabular environment:
\multicolumn \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}
The \multicolumn command makes an entry that spans several
columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the
number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos,
specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centered, l
for flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument,
text, specifies what text to put in the entry.
Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash;
\multicolumn is used for the heading:
\begin{tabular}{r@{--}l}
\multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr
0x80&0x7FF \cr
0x800&0xFFFF \cr
0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr
\end{tabular}
\cline \cline{i-j}
The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns
specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j,
which are specified in the mandatory argument.
\hline
The \hline command draws a horizontal line the width of the
enclosing tabular or array environment. It's most
commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows
of a table.
\vline
The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full
height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to
move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an
@-expression.
thebibliography \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
...
\end{thebibliography}
The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or
reference list.
In the article class, this reference list is labelled
“References”; in the report class, it is labelled
“Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes)
by redefining the command \refname. For instance, this
eliminates it entirely:
\renewcommand{\refname}{}
The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset,
is as wide as the widest item label produced by the \bibitem
commands. It is typically given as 9 for bibliographies with
less than 10 references, 99 for ones with less than 100, etc.
\bibitem \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by
label. If the label argument is missing, a number is
automatically generated using the enumi counter. The
cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation
symbols not containing a comma.
This command writes an entry to the .aux file containing the
item's cite_key and label. When the .aux file is read by
the \begin{document} command, the item's label is
associated with cite_key, causing references to cite_key
with a \cite command (see next section) to produce the
associated label.
\cite \cite[subcite]{keys
The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with keys by entries in the .aux file.
The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the
citation. For example, \cite[p.~314]{knuth} might produce
`[Knuth, p. 314]'.
\nociteThe \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list,
which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file.
If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly
recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of
titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the
thebibliography environment (see thebibliography). Instead,
you include the lines
\bibliographystyle{bibstyle}
\bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2}
The \bibliographystyle command does not produce any output of
its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will
be produced: bibstyle refers to a file
bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look.
The standard style names distributed with BibTeX are:
alphaplainunsrtplain, but entries are in order of citation.
abbrvplain, but more compact labels.
In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib.
The \bibliography command is what actually produces the
bibliography. The argument to \bibliography refers to files
named bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in
BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via \cite and
\nocite will be listed in the bibliography.
theorem \begin{theorem}
theorem-text
\end{theorem}
The theorem environment produces “Theorem n” in
boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering
possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem
(see \newtheorem).
titlepage \begin{titlepage}
text
\end{titlepage}
The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e., a page
with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following
page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to
you. The \today command may be useful on title pages
(see \today).
You can use the \maketitle command (see \maketitle) to
produce a standard title page without a titlepage environment.
verbatim \begin{verbatim}
literal-text
\end{verbatim}
The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment in
which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the
\ character produces a printed ‘\’. It turns LaTeX
into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same
effect that they would on a typewriter.
The verbatim uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt).
\verb \verbcharliteral-textchar
\verb*charliteral-textchar
The \verb command typesets literal-text as it is input,
including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter
(\tt) font. No spaces are allowed between \verb or
\verb* and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the
verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text.
The *-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a
“visible space” character.
verse \begin{verse}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{verse}
The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.
The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not
indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each
stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to separate the
stanzas.
Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced
with one command, the \footnote command. They can also be
produced with two commands, the \footnotemark and the
\footnotetext commands.
\footnote \footnote[number]{text}
The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text
at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument number
changes the default footnote number.
This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you
cannot use it in sectioning commands like \chapter, in figures,
tables or in a tabular environment. (See following sections.)
\footnotemark
With no optional argument, the \footnotemark command puts the
current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in
inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately,
with the \footnotetext command.
This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote with
\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
after the first \footnote command.
\footnotetext \footnotetext[number]{text}
The \footnotetext command places text at the bottom of
the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the
\footnotemark command. The \footnotetext command must
appear in outer paragraph mode.
The optional argument number changes the default footnote number.
\footnoterule0.4pt thick (or wide), and
0.4\columnwidth long in the standard document classes (except
slides, where it does not appear).
\footnotesep\footnotesize
fonts (see Font sizes), therefore there is no extra space between
footnotes. This is ‘6.65pt’ for ‘10pt’, ‘7.7pt’ for
‘11pt’, and ‘8.4pt’ for ‘12pt’.
LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
\newcommand & \renewcommand
\newcommand and \renewcommand define and redefine a
command, respectively. Synopses:
\newcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\newcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn}
\renewcommand{cmd}[nargs][default]{defn}
\. For \newcommand, it
must not be already defined and must not begin with \end; for
\renewcommand, it must already be defined.
cmd; a
construct of the form #n in defn is replaced by the
text of the nth argument.
\newcounter \newcounter{cnt}[countername]
The \newcounter command defines a new counter named cnt.
The new counter is initialized to zero.
Given the optional argument [countername], cnt
will be reset whenever countername is incremented.
See Counters, for more information about counters.
\newlength \newlength{\arg}
The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument as a
length command with a value of 0in. The argument must
be a control sequence, as in \newlength{\foo}. An error
occurs if \foo is already defined.
See Lengths, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and for more information about lengths in general.
\newsavebox \newsavebox{cmd}
Defines \cmd, which must be a command name not already
defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.
\newenvironment & \renewenvironment \newenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment{env}[nargs][default]{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is,
\begin{env} ... \end{env}.
\newenvironment, env
must not be an existing environment, and the command \env
must be undefined. For \renewenvironment, env must be
the name of an existing environment.
\begin{env}; a
construct of the form #n in begdef is replaced by
the text of the nth argument.
\end{env}. It
may not contain any argument parameters.
\newtheorem \newtheorem{newenv}{label}[within]
\newtheorem{newenv}[numbered_like]{label}
This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments:
At most one of numbered_like and within can be specified, not both.
\newfont \newfont{cmd}{fontname}
Defines a control sequence \cmd, which must not already
be defined, to make fontname be the current font. The file
looked for on the system is named fontname.tfm.
This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. More commonly, fonts are defined in families through .fd files.
\protect
Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and
many more are so-called fragile commands. When a fragile
command is used in certain contexts, called moving arguments, it
must be preceded by \protect. In addition, any fragile
commands within the arguments must have their own \protect.
Some examples of moving arguments are \caption
(see figure), \thanks (see \maketitle), and
expressions in tabular and array environments
(see tabular).
Commands which are not fragile are called robust. They must not
be preceded by \protect.
See also:
http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect
Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with
it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment
or command that produces the number, except with no \.
(enumi–enumiv are used for the nested enumerate
environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's
standard document classes to control numbering.
part paragraph figure enumi
chapter subparagraph table enumii
section page footnote enumiii
subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv
subsubsection
\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol: Printing countersAll of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
instance, \alph{enumi}.
\alph\Alph\arabic\roman\roman\fnsymbolThe symbols mostly aren't supported in Info, but here are the names:
asterix(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel
double-asterix(**) double-dagger double-ddagger
\usecounter{counter} \usecounter{counter}
The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the
list environment to specify counter to be used to number
the list items.
\value{counter} \value{counter}
The \value command produces the value of counter. It can
be used anywhere LaTeX expects a number, for example:
\setcounter{myctr}{3}
\addtocounter{myctr}{1}
\hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
\setcounter{counter}{value} \setcounter{\counter}{value}
The \setcounter command sets the value of \counter to the
value argument.
\addtocounter{counter}{value}
The \addtocounter command increments counter by the
amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative.
\refstepcounter{counter}
The \refstepcounter command works in the same way as
\stepcounter See \stepcounter, except it also defines the
current \ref value to be the result of \thecounter.
\stepcounter{counter}
The \stepcounter command adds one to counter and
resets all subsidiary counters.
\day \month \year: Predefined counters
LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month (\day,
1–31), month of the year (\month, 1–12), and year
(\year, Common Era). When TeX starts up, they are
set to the current values on the system where TeX is running. They
are not updated as the job progresses.
The related command \today produces a string representing the
current day (see \today).
A length is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a
length as an argument.
\setlength{\len}{value}
The \setlength sets the value of \len to the value
argument, which can be expressed in any units that LaTeX
understands, i.e., inches (in), millimeters (mm), points
(pt), big points (bp, etc.
The \addtolength command increments a “length command”
\len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which
may be negative.
\settodepthThe \settodepth command sets the value of a length command
equal to the depth of the text argument.
\settoheightThe \settoheight command sets the value of a length command
equal to the height of the text argument.
\settowidth{\len}{text}
The \settowidth command sets the value of the command \len
to the width of the text argument.
\width
\height
\depth
\totalheight
These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making
commands (see Boxes). They specify the natural width etc. of the
text in the box. \totalheight equals \height +
\depth. To make a box with the text stretched to double the
natural size, e.g., say
\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}
The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages).
LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in
some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the
\\ command, and you can always manually force breaks.
\\[*][morespace]
The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line. It has an
optional argument, morespace, that specifies how much extra
vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a
negative amount.
The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command
except that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.
\obeycr & \restorecr
The \obeycr command makes a return in the input file
(‘^^M’, internally) the same as \\ (followed by
\relax). So each new line in the input will also be a new line
in the output.
\restorecr restores normal line-breaking behavior.
\newline
The \newline command breaks the line at the present point, with
no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph
mode.
\- (discretionary hyphen)
The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at
that point. LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually
find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an
incorrect one. The \- command is used for the exceptional
cases.
When you insert \- commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points
that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.
\fussy
The declaration \fussy (which is the default) makes TeX
picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between
words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.
This command cancels the effect of a previous \sloppy command
(see \sloppy.
\sloppyThe declaration \sloppy makes TeX less fussy about line
breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose
interword spacing.
Lasts until a \fussy command is issued (see \fussy).
\hyphenation \hyphenation{word-one word-two}
The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points
with a - character in the given words. The words are separated
by spaces. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no
inflections are tried. Multiple \hyphenation commands
accumulate. Some examples (the default TeX hyphenation patterns
misses the hyphenations in these words):
\hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}
\linebreak & \nolinebreak \linebreak[priority]
\nolinebreak[priority]
By default, the \linebreak (\nolinebreak) command forces
(prevents) a line break at the current position. For
\linebreak, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it
extends to the right margin as usual.
With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request.
LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.
\cleardoublepage
The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand
(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.
\clearpage
The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
\newpage
The \newpage command ends the current page, but does not clear
floats (see \clearpage above).
\enlargethispage\enlargethispage*{size}
Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified
amount; e.g. \enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one
additional line.
The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as
much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit
\pagebreak.
\pagebreak & \nopagebreak \pagebreak[priority]
\nopagebreak[priority]
By default, the \pagebreak (\nopagebreak) command forces
(prevents) a page break at the current position. For
\linebreak, the vertical space on the page is stretched out
where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin.
With the optional argument priority, you can convert the
\pagebreak command from a demand to a request. The number must
be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.
A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not
containing even a %. A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.
\indent
\indent produces a horizontal space whose width equals the
width of the \parindent length, the normal paragraph
indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would
otherwise be suppressed.
The default value for \parindent is 1em in two-column
mode, otherwise 15pt for 10pt documents, 17pt for
11pt, and 1.5em for 12pt.
\noindent
When used at the beginning of the paragraph, \noindent
suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in
the middle of a paragraph.
\parskip
\parskip is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added
before each paragraph. The default is 0pt plus1pt.
\marginpar[left]{right}
The \marginpar command creates a note in the margin. The first
line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text
where the \marginpar occurs.
When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will be placed
The command \reversemarginpar places subsequent marginal notes
in the opposite (inside) margin. \normalmarginpar places them
in the default position.
When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left margin, and right is used for the right margin.
The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
hyphenation there by beginning the node with \hspace{0pt}.
These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
\marginparpush\marginparsep\marginparwidthThere are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:
mathdisplaymathequationThe math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode,
but the displaymath and equation environments can be used
only in paragraph mode. The math and displaymath
environments are used so often that they have the following short forms:
\(...\) instead of \begin{math}...\end{math} \[...\] instead of \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}
In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:
$ ... $ instead of \(...\)
The \boldmath command changes math letters and symbols to be in
a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the
\unboldmath command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font;
it too is used outside of math mode.
The \displaystyle declaration forces the size and style of the
formula to be that of displaymath, e.g., with limits above and
below summations. For example
$\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $
To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type
_{exp}. To get exp to appear as a
superscript, you type ^{exp}. LaTeX handles
superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way.
It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a
superscript.
LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to
need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode.
For example, if you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get
the pi symbol (\pi) in your output.
\|\aleph\alpha\amalg\angle\approx\ast\asymp\backslash\beta\bigcap\bigcirc\bigcup\bigodot\bigoplus\bigotimes\bigtriangledown\bigtriangleup\bigsqcup\biguplus\bigcap\bigwedge\bot\bowtie\Box\bullet\cap\cdot\chi\circ\clubsuit\cong\coprod\cup\dagger\dashv\ddagger\Delta\delta\Diamond\diamond\diamondsuit\div\doteq\downarrow\Downarrow\ell\emptyset\epsilon\equiv\eta\exists\flat\forall\frown\Gamma\gamma\ge\geq\gets\gg\hbar\heartsuit\hookleftarrow\hookrightarrow\iff\Im\in\infty\int\iota\Join\kappa\Lambda\lambda\land\langle\lbrace\lbrack\lceil\le\leadsto\Leftarrow\leftarrow\leftharpoondown\leftharpoonup\Leftrightarrow\leftrightarrow\leq\lfloor\lhd\ll\lnot\longleftarrow\longleftrightarrow\longmapsto\longrightarrow\lor\mapsto\mho\mid\models\mp\mu\nabla\natural\ne\nearrow\neg\neq\ni\not\notin\nu\nwarrow\odot\oint\Omega\omega\ominus\oplus\oslash\otimes\owns\parallel\partial\perp\phi\Pi\pi\pm\prec\preceq\prime\prod\propto\Psi\psi\rangle\rbrace\rbrack\rceil\Re\rfloor\rhd\rho\Rightarrow\rightarrow\rightharpoondown\rightharpoonup\rightleftharpoons\searrow\setminus\sharp\Sigma\sigma\sim\simeq\smallint\smile\spadesuit\sqcap\sqcup\sqsubset\sqsubseteq\sqsupset\sqsupseteq\star\subset\subseteq\succ\succeq\sum\supset\supseteq\surd\swarrow\tau\theta\times\to\top\triangle\triangleleft\triangleright\unlhd\unrhd\Uparrow\uparrow\Updownarrow\updownarrow\uplus\Upsilon\upsilon\varepsilon\varphi\varpi\varrho\varsigma\vartheta\vdash\vee\Vert\vert\wedge\wp\wr\Xi\xi\zetaThese commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing.
\arccos\arcsin\arctan\arg\bmod\cos\cosh\cot\coth\csc\deg\det\dim\exp\gcd\hom\inf\ker\lg\lim\liminf\limsup\ln\log\max\min\pmod\Pr\sec\sin\sinh\sup\tan\tanhLaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (see Accents).
\acute\bar\breve\check\ddot\dot\grave\hat\imath\jmath\tilde\vec\widehat\widehat
In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and
puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics
texts. If you want different spacing, LaTeX provides the following
commands for use in math mode:
\;\:\>\,\!\*\cdots\ddots\frac{num}{den}num divided by den.
\left delim1 ... \right delim2\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right].
\overbrace{text}\overline{text}\sqrt[root]{arg}x+y would be typed as
$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$.
\stackrel{text}{relation}\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}.
\underbrace{math}\underline{text}\vdotsWhen LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes:
LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.
“Paragraph mode” is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in
when processing ordinary text. In that mode, LaTeX breaks your
text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. LaTeX is in
“math mode” when it's generating a mathematical formula. In “LR
mode”, as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that it
produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However,
unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it
never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words
into an \mbox, LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left
to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting
box was too wide to fit on the line.
LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox
command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for
example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box.
There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode. The box make by one of
these commands or environments will be called a parbox. When
LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in
“inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out
in, is called “outer paragraph mode”.
The \documentclass command determines the size and position of
the page's head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them.
\maketitle
The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title
page—except in the article class, where the title is placed
at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title
is obtained from the following declarations:
\author{name \and name2}\author command declares the document author(s), where the
argument is a list of authors separated by \and commands. Use
\\ to separate lines within a single author's entry—for
example, to give the author's institution or address.
\date{text}\date command declares text to be the document's
date. With no \date command, the current date (see \today)
is used.
\thanks{text}\thanks command produces a \footnote to the title,
usually used for credit acknowledgements.
\title{text}\title command declares text to be the title of the
document. Use \\ to force a line break, as usual.
\pagenumbering \pagenumbering{style}
Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style:
arabicromanRomanalphAlph\pagestyle \pagestyle{style}
The \pagestyle command specifies how the headers and footers
are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style:
plainemptyheadingsmyheadings\markboth or the
\markright commands.
Here are the descriptions of \markboth and \markright:
\markboth{left}{right}\markboth command before
the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right is
generated by the first \markboth or \markright that
comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before
the page.
\markright{right}\thispagestyle{style}
The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the
\pagestyle command (see previous section) except that it
changes to style for the current page only.
LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.
Another space-producing command is \, to produce a “thin”
space (usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is
more often useful in math mode (see Spacing in math mode).
Horizontal space
Vertical space
\hspace \hspace[*]{length}
The \hspace command adds horizontal space. The length
argument can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands:
points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both
negative and positive space with an \hspace command; adding
negative space is like backspacing.
LaTeX normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning
or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional *
form.
\hfillThe \hfill fill command produces a “rubber length” which has
no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as
needed.
The \fill parameter is the rubber length itself (technically,
the glue value ‘0pt plus1fill’); thus, \hspace\fill is
equivalent to \hfill.
\SPACE
The \ (space) command produces a normal interword space. It's
useful after punctuation which shouldn't end a sentence. For example
Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental.
It is also often used after control sequences, as in \TeX\ is a
nice system.
In normal circumstances, \<tab> and \<newline>
are equivalent to \ .
\@
The \@ command makes the following punctuation character end a
sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after
a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without
\@:
... in C\@. Pascal, though ...
... in C. Pascal, though ...
produces
... in C. Pascal, though ... ... in C. Pascal, though ...
\thinspace
\thinspace produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that
is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as
in '”.
\/
The \/ command produces an italic correction. This is a
small space defined by the font designer for a given character,
to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic
f character typically has a large italic correction value.
If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the `f's are nicely separated) with f: f;.
Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space after the `f') with pdfTeX.
\hrulefill
The \hrulefill fill command produces a “rubber length” which can
stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal
rule.
\dotfill
The \dotfill command produces a “rubber length” that fills
with dots instead of just white space.
\addvspaceThe \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height
length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same
point in the output by a previous \addvspace command, then this
command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length
of the total vertical space equal to length.
\bigskip \medskip \smallskipThese commands produce a given amount of space.
\bigskip\vspace{bigskipamount}, ordinarily about one line
space (with stretch and shrink).
\medskip\vspace{medskipamount}, ordinarily
about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink).
\smallskip\vspace{smallskipamount}, ordinarily about a
quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink).
The \...amount parameters are determined by the document class.
\vfill
The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which
can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It's equivalent to
\vspace{\fill} (see \hfill).
\vspace[*]{length} \vspace[*]{length}
The \vspace command adds the vertical space length, i.e.,
a rubber length. length can be negative or positive.
Ordinarily, LaTeX removes vertical space added by \vspace at
the top or bottom of a page. With the optional * argument, the
space is not removed.
All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands.
\mbox{text}
The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the
text created by its argument. The text is not broken into
lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.
\fbox and \framebox \fbox{text}
\framebox[width][position]{text}
The \fbox and \framebox commands are like \mbox,
except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.
In addition, the \framebox command allows for explicit
specification of the box width with the optional width argument
(a dimension), and positioning with the optional position
argument.
Both commands produce a rule of thickness \fboxrule (default
‘.4pt’), and leave a space of \fboxsep (default
‘3pt’) between the rule and the contents of the box.
See \framebox (picture), for the \framebox command in the
picture environment.
lrbox
\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}
This is the environment form of \sbox.
The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which
must have been declared with \newsavebox.
\makebox \makebox[width][position]{text}
The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain
the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the
optional width argument. The position of the text within the box
is determined by the optional position argument, which may take
the following values:
clrs\makebox is also used within the picture environment
see \makebox (picture).
\parbox \parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}
The \parbox command produces a box whose contents are created
in paragraph mode. It should be used to make a box small
pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you
shouldn't use any paragraph-making environments inside a
\parbox argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones
containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a
minipage environment (see minipage).
\parbox has two mandatory arguments:
The optional position argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top).
The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box.
The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used.
tcbs\raisebox \raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text}
The \raisebox command raises or lowers text. The first
mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or
lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed
in LR mode.
The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. If they are specified, LaTeX treats text as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth.
\savebox \savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text}
This command typeset text in a box just as with \makebox
(see \makebox), except that instead of printing the resulting box,
it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been
declared with \newsavebox (see \newsavebox).
\sbox{\boxcmd}{text} \sbox{\boxcmd}{text}
\sbox types text in a box just as with \mbox
(see \mbox) except that instead of the resulting box being
included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled
\boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with
\newsavebox (see \newsavebox).
\usebox{\boxcmd \usebox{\boxcmd}
\usebox producesthe box most recently saved in the bin
\boxcmd by a \savebox command (see \savebox).
LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.
The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called “reserved characters” or “special characters”.
# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX
will do something special. If you simply want the character to be
printed as itself, include a \ in front of the character. For
example, \$ will produce $ in your output.
One exception to this rule is \ itself, because \\ has
its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by
typing $\backslash$ in your file, and a typewriter \ is
produced by using ‘\’ in a verbatim command (see verbatim).
Also, \~ and \^ place tilde and circumflex accents over
the following letter, as in õ and ô (see Accents); to get
a standalone ~ or ^, you can again use a verbatim
command.
Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you
know its number by using the \symbol command. For example, the
visible space character used in the \verb* command has the code
decimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}.
You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal numbers
with ", so the previous example could also be written as
\symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}.
LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text.
\copyright\dag\ddag\LaTeX\ldots\lq\P\pounds\rq\S\TeX
LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and
languages, through the babel package and related support. This
section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely the
core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters.
\"\'tabbing
environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column
(see tabbing).
\.\=\^\`tabbing environment, move following text to the right margin
(see tabbing).
\~\b\c\d\H\i\j\t\u\vHere are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly used in languages other than English.
\aa\AA\ae\AE\l\L\o\O\oe\OE\ss\rule \rule[raise]{width}{thickness}
The \rule command produces rules, that is, lines or
rectangles. The arguments are:
\today
The \today command produces today's date, in the format
‘month dd, yyyy’; for example, `July 4, 1976'.
It uses the predefined counters \day, \month, and
\year (see \day \month \year) to do this. It is not
updated as the program runs.
The datetime package, among others, can produce a wide variety
of other date formats.
A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run LaTeX.
\include \include{file}
If no \includeonly command is present, the \include
command executes \clearpage to start a new page
(see \clearpage), then reads file, then does another
\clearpage.
Given an \includeonly command, the \include actions are
only run if file is listed as an argument to
\includeonly. See the next section.
The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
read by another \include command.
includeonly \includeonly{file1,file2,...}
The \includeonly command controls which files will be read by
subsequent \include commands. The list of filenames is
comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename
specified in a \include command for the selection to be
effective.
This command can only appear in the preamble.
\input{file}
The \input command causes the specified file to be read
and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current
file at that point.
If file does not end in ‘.tex’ (e.g., ‘foo’ or ‘foo.bar’), it is first tried with that extension (‘foo.tex’ or ‘foo.bar.tex’). If that is not found, the original file is tried (‘foo’ or ‘foo.bar’).
A table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents
command. You put the command right where you want the table of
contents to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. A previous run must
have generated a .toc file.
The \tableofcontents command produces a heading, but it does
not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the
table of contents, write a \newpage command after the
\tableofcontents command.
The analogous commands \listoffigures and \listoftables
produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.
Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.
The command \nofiles overrides these commands, and
prevents any of these lists from being generated.
The \addcontentsline{ext}{unit}{text}
command adds an entry to the specified list or table where:
toc (table of contents), lof (list of
figures), or lot (list of tables).
tocpart, chapter,
section, subsection, subsubsection.
loflotWhat is written to the .ext file is the
command \contentsline{unit}{name}.
The \addtocontents{ext}{text} command adds text
(or formatting commands) directly to the .ext file that
generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables.
The command \makeglossary enables creating glossaries.
The command \glossary{text} writes a glossary entry for
text to an auxiliary file with the .glo extension.
Specifically, what gets written is the command
\glossaryentry{text}{pageno}, where
pageno is the current \thepage value.
The glossary package on CTAN provides support for fancier
glossaries.
The command \makeindex enables creating indexes. Put this in
the preamble.
The command \index{text} writes an index entry for
text to an auxiliary file with the .idx extension.
Specifically, what gets written is the command
\indexentry{text}{pageno}, where pageno
is the current \thepage value.
To generate a index entry for `bar' that says `See foo', use a
vertical bar: \index{bar|see{foo}}. Use seealso
instead of see to make a `See also' entry.
The text `See' is defined by the macro \seename, and `See also'
by the macro \alsoname. These can be redefined for other
languages.
The generated .idx file is then sorted with an external command, usually either makeindex (http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex) or (the multi-lingual) xindy (http://xindy.sourceforge.net). This results in a .ind file, which can then be read to typeset the index.
The index is usually generated with the \printindex command.
This is defined in the makeidx package, so
\usepackage{makeidx} needs to be in the preamble.
The rubber length \indexspace is inserted before each new
letter in the printed index; its default value is ‘10pt plus5pt
minus3pt’.
The showidx package causes each index entries to be shown in
the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in
preparing the index.
The multind package supports multiple indexes. See also the
TeX FAQ entry on this topic,
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind.
You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business. The
letter document class is designed to make a number of letters at
once, although you can make just one if you so desire.
Your .tex source file has the same minimum commands as the other document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a minimum:
\documentclass{letter}
\begin{document}
... letters ...
\end{document}
Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name
and address of the recipient. For example, you might have:
\begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
\\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
...
\end{letter}
The letter itself begins with the \opening command. The text of
the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input. Commands that
make no sense in a letter, like \chapter, do not work. The letter
closes with a \closing command.
After the closing, you can have additional material. The
\cc command produces the usual “cc: ...”. There's also a
similar \encl command for a list of enclosures. With both these
commands, use \\ to separate the items.
These commands are used with the letter class.
The \address specifies the return address of a letter, as it
should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the
address should be separated by \\ commands.
If you do not make an \address declaration, then the letter
will be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard
letterhead. (See Overview, for details on your local
implementation). If you give an \address declaration, then the
letter will be formatted as a personal letter.
\cc \cc{name1\\name2}
Produce a list of names the letter was copied to. Each name is printed on a separate line.
\closing \closing{text}
A letter closes with a \closing command, for example,
\closing{Best Regards,}
\encl \encl{line1\\line2}
Declare a list of one more enclosures.
\locationThis modifies your organisation's standard address. This only appears
if the firstpage pagestyle is selected.
\makelabelsIf you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.
\nameYour name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.
\opening{text} \opening{text}
A letter begins with the \opening command. The mandatory
argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter.
For instance:
\opening{Dear Joe,}
\ps
Use the \ps command to start a postscript in a letter, after
\closing.
\signature{text}
Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the
space for your signature. \\ starts a new line within
text as usual.
\startbreaksUsed after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again.
\stopbreaksInhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs.
\telephoneThis is your telephone number. This only appears if the
firstpage pagestyle is selected.
\typein[cmd]{msg} \typein[\cmd]{msg}
\typein prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to
stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If
the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is
processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the
\typein command. If the \cmd argument is present, it
must be a command name. This command name is then defined or
redefined to be the typed input.
\typeout{msg} \typeout{msg}
Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file.
Commands in msg that are defined with \newcommand or
\renewcommand (among others) are replaced by their definitions
before being printed.
LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg. A
\space command in msg causes a single space to be
printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A ^^J in
msg prints a newline.
The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses .tex as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the command; e.g.
latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'
will process foo.tex without pausing after every error.
If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a
‘*’ prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type \stop
(and return) and it will prematurely end the document.
Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful.
book template\documentclass{book}
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\chapter{First}
Some text.
\chapter{Second}
Some other text.
\section{A subtopic}
The end.
\end{document}
beamer templateThe beamer class creates slides presentations.
\documentclass{beamer}
\title{Beamer Class template}
\author{Alex Author}
\date{July 31, 2007}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
\begin{frame}[fragile]
\frametitle{First Slide}
\begin{verbatim}
This is \verbatim!
\end{verbatim}
\end{frame}
\end{document}
tugboat templateTUGboat is the journal of the TeX Users Group, http://tug.org/TUGboat.
\documentclass{ltugboat} % ltugproc for proceedings
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{ifpdf}
\ifpdf
\usepackage[breaklinks,colorlinks,linkcolor=black,citecolor=black,
urlcolor=black]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage{url}
\fi
\begin{document}
\title{Example \TUB\ Regular Article}
% repeat info for each author.
\author{First Last}
\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}
\maketitle
% The abstract comes after \maketitle in ltugboat.
\begin{abstract}
This is an example article for a regular \TUB{} issue.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
This is an example article for \TUB, from
\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.
We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the hyperref
package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output). \TUB\ is produced
using \acro{PDF} files exclusively, nowadays.
The \texttt{ltug*} classes provide these abbreviations, among many others:
{\small
\begin{verbatim}
\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
\BibTeX \CandT \CTAN \DTD \DVItoVDU \HTML
\ISBN \ISSN \JTeX \JoT \LAMSTeX \LaTeXe
\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \pcMF \PCTeX \pcTeX \Pas
\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP \TUB \TUG
\tug \UG \UNIX \VAX \VorTeX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE
\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
\careof \thinskip
\acro{FRED} -> {\sc fred} % please use!
\cs{fred} -> \fred
\env{fred} -> \begin{fred}
\meta{fred} -> <fred>
\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ...
\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
\booktitle{Book of Fred}
\end{verbatim}
}
For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.
\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style
\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty
\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX
\makesignature % not in ltugproc
\end{document}
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